Word Pairs: Who vs. Whom

It sounds pretty old fashioned: To whom have you sent those letters? Modern colloquial speakers expect something more along the lines of Who did you send those letters to?

While whom may sound outdated, it can pose a problem, especially if you’re writing for an erudite audience, or if you are a stickler for using words properly and adhering to the rules of grammar.

In the example above, the second sentence (Who did you send those letters to?) breaches the standards set forth by proper grammar, and it breaks the rule in the ongoing battle of who vs. whom.

Here are the two grammar rules violated by our example sentence:

1. It ends with a preposition
2. Uses who where whom is the correct interrogative pronoun

Interrogative Pronoun! Are You Kidding?

Yeah, I guess it sounds pretty fancy, and no, I’m not kidding. As I’ve mentioned before, I’m not one of those grammar sticklers. I do, however, believe that writers who learn the rules can better get away with breaking them. If you are a writer, then it couldn’t possibly hurt to know what an interrogative pronoun is, and how to use it in a sentence, correctly.

Plus, learning about interrogative pronouns will help you know the difference between who vs. whom.

Interrogative Pronoun

Simply put, an interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used in a question. You know these words: who, what, where, when, why, and how. Whence and whither are also interrogative pronouns, but I’ll spare you on those. For now.

Who Uses Whom Nowadays?

The word whom seems to have fallen out of favor, although some crotchety old aunt or anal-retentive English teacher might force it into your vocabulary at some point. For all I know, whom could still be used in British English, Canadian English, or Aussie speak. It’s safe to assume that a high profile writing assignment (Ph.D, anyone?) would require you to adhere to strict rules, and to use whom where it would be expected. Also, if you were writing an historical novel, or perhaps a fantasy tale with a medieval flair, you’d want to know such things so your characters would have realistic dialogue.

So, What’s the Difference between Who and Whom?

First I’ll give you the technical answer, then a trick to help you remember which one to use in your own sentence crafting.

Who refers to the subject of a sentence, while whom refers to the object.

Yep, it’s that simple.

Example:

I see you.

In the sentence above, I is the subject and you is the object. I always remember subject as the giver and object as the receiver.

Since who is the proper interrogative pronoun for representing a sentence’s subject, you could say:

Who sees you?
(I do. I see you.)

The object of a sentence is represented with whom, so you would say the following:

I see whom? or Whom do I see?
(I see you.)

Tip for Remember Who vs. Whom

Some months ago, while listening to Grammar Girl (one of my favorite podcasts), I picked up a neat little trick for remembering when to use who vs. whom. Both whom and him are pronouns that end with the letter m. If the sentence can be constructed with him in place of whom, you’re on the right track.

I see whom?

Whom did I see?

I see him.

Grammar sure is fun.

Editor’s Note: This post was originally published in January, 2008, but has been updated with more information and therefore republished for your reading (and learning) pleasure.

Word Pairs: Farther? Further?

Believe it or not, farther and further each have distinctly different meanings although people tend to use them interchangeably.

And it’s no surprise, because these two words look a lot alike, sound a lot alike, and the difference in meaning is quite subtle. Plus, there are a few circumstances when they are legitimately interchangeable.

Let’s solve the farther, further mystery for once and for all. After all, word pairs aren’t difficult or confusing if you make them fun!

Farther

The word farther deals with physical distance or that which can be measured. One way to remember this is to recall the phrase “far away.”

Examples include:

• I jog a little farther each day.
• Do you live farther away from the city now?
• The library is farther from my house than the bookstore.

Further

Further also deals with distance, but not in physical terms. Use further when you’re talking about figurative distance or a general advancement. Some interchangeable terms include furthermore, moreover, and in addition. Further also indicates a greater degree of something. Here are examples of how to use further correctly in a sentence:

• I’ll be delving further into the topic at a later date.
• I am further along in my holiday shopping than I was last year at this time.
• Further, I intend to finish my shopping before the end of the week.

Farther / Further

In some cases, you can use either of these words, especially when the distinction isn’t clear. For example, if you are discussing a book, you could argue that there is physical distance between the pages because they can be measured. However, since the distance between pages is not geographical in nature, usage of farther or further is ambiguous. When it’s not completely clear which word to use, you can choose either one, though it’s usually safer to go with further because it has less restriction that its cousin.

• I’m farther along in the book than other members of my book club.
• The other members of my book club are further along in the book than I am.

If you have any tips for remembering farther – further, then please do tell!

Do you have grammar questions? Are there any word pairs that confound you? Send me an e-mail or leave a comment with your suggestions for grammar topics!

Word Pairs: Lay or Lie

Word pairs often seem like they were designed to confuse writers.

One of the most common grammatical mistakes is the practice of unwittingly using lay or lie incorrectly. This error is so common, it even slips past professional writers, editors, and English teachers — all the time.

Maybe eventually these two words will morph into one and have the exact same meaning, but until then, it’s worthwhile to learn proper usage. But for now, their meanings are completely different.

Let’s take a look at this interesting word pair and find out whether we should be using lay or lie based on each word’s definition.

Lay

Dictionary.com lists 42 different definitions for the word lay. Of these, 28 are categorized as a verb used with an object, eight as verbs used without an object, and six are simply nouns. Plus, there are 15 verb phrases that use the word lay, as well as nine idioms. This is a word that can be used in a lot of different ways!

Let’s keep things simple by focusing on what differentiates lay from lie.

In short, lay is something you do to something else. You might think that sounds funny, especially considering idiom number 58 (get laid), but it’s true and of course “getting laid” is exactly what you should use to remember that you lay something (down).

Lie

Lie only has 27 definitions, so that’s a relief. Though, that’s not taking into consideration the nine additional definitions that deal with falsehoods.

Again, we’ll keep it simple. Just remember that you should use the word lie when there is no object involved.

Lay or Lie

Here are some tips to help you remember whether to use lay or lie in a sentence:

Every sentence has a subject and a verb. An example would be:

I write.

“I” is the subject, and “write” is the verb. Many sentences also have an object:

I write blogs.

In this example, “blogs” is the object. The object in a sentence receives the action of the verb. The subject is taking or making that action.

Subject: I (does the action)

Action: write (the action)

Object: blogs (receives the action – i.e. gets written)

Learning Word Pairs is Easy!

The word lay should be used when there is an object receiving the action, i.e. something or someone is getting laid (down) by something or someone else.

• I always lay my pencil down by the phone.
• I laid the book on that chair.
• I am laying down the law.

Conversely, the word lie is used when there is no object involved, i.e. the subject of the sentence is doing the lying.

• I lie down every afternoon.
• The kitten lies there, dozing.
• The dog is lying down.

That was easy!

Do you have any tips for remembering whether a sentence calls for lay or lie? Are there any word pairs that confuse you? Share your thoughts by leaving a comment.

Word Pairs: i.e. and e.g.

Often we come across the abbreviations i.e. and e.g., but what do they mean, and what is the difference between them?

These two terms originate in the Latin language and are just two of the many Latin phrases that have survived into modern language. Both i.e. and e.g. are abbreviations for longer Latin phrases, so one of the smartest ways to memorize these terms is to learn what they stand for.

If you speak any of the Latin languages, you’ll have the upper hand in memorize i.e. and e.g. And if you don’t speak any Latin languages, then here are some tips to help you better understand these two terms.

That is (i.e.)

Iillud est or il est means that is. It can also mean in other words. When abbreviated, it is always written with periods between and after the letters: i.e., and it should always be followed by a comma, and then the remainder of the sentence. It often acts as a conjunction, linking two separate phrases or ideas together. It is interesting to note that the phrase il est is still fully alive in the French language, meaning he is or it is.

Example:

I am writing, i.e., I am putting my thoughts into words on paper.

For Example (e.g.)

Exempli gratia means for the sake of example, but we often construe it to mean simply for example. As with i.e., it is always written with periods between and after the letters when it is abbreviated. It is usually followed by a comma, but there may be exceptions based on context.

Example:

There are many Latin words and phrases which still exist in modern languages, e.g., carpe diem, which means seize the day.

Avoid a Mix-up: Tips for Remembering i.e. and e.g.

Abbreviated or not, these terms are not interchangeable. They simply do not mean the same thing. Still, they are often used in ways that are confusing, and since they look similar, they are easy to mix up. How to remember the difference?

These two abbreviations share the letter e. So, we must use the other letters, the i and the g, respectively, to remember which is which. The trick is to just remember one of them, and the easiest of the two is i.e., or that is.

If you can associate the i in i.e. with the word is, you’ll be fine, because e.g. doesn’t have the letter i, and neither does the phrase for example.

i.e. = that is

e.g. = for example

Can you think of any more ways to easily remember i.e. and e.g.? Which Latin terms do you like, struggle with, or use regularly?

Word Pairs: Fewer vs. Less

It’s a battle for the ages: fewer vs. less.

Many people don’t even realize that these two words do not share the same meaning and therefore cannot be used interchangeably. As a result, both fewer and less are often used incorrectly.

The difference may be subtle but it’s significant and remarkably easy to remember. When using fewer or less as adjectives (words that modify nouns), deciding which to use in a sentence poses an interesting dilemma.

Let’s see what Dictionary.com has to say about it:

fewer: adjective 1. of a smaller number: fewer words and more action.

less: adjective 1. smaller in size, amount, degree, etc.; not so large, great, or much: less money; less speed.

Now, let me break it down for you.

Fewer? Less? Which is Correct?

Fewer and less respectively refer to a number of items, or an amount of something. The easiest way to remember which of these adjectives to use in a given situation is this:

Fewer should be used when the items in question can be counted.

She has fewer books than her brother.

Less is used when the amount of something cannot be counted.

She has less interest in reading than her brother.

Note that books can be counted item by item. However, interest is not a thing that can be counted, though we can discuss how much of it someone has.

The basic difference here is countability. Use fewer for countable nouns like individuals, cars, and pens. Use less for uncountable nouns such as love, time, and paper. Do note, however, that there are some sticky spots to watch out for when determining whether you should use fewer or less. For example, you might need less paper but you will need fewer sheets of paper.

Fewer? Less?

Now you know how to tell the difference.

Do you have questions about fewer, less, or any other word pairs? Maybe you have something to add to this linguistic look at tricky adjectives. Share your thoughts, knowledge, and let’s discuss.

Word Pairs: That and Which

There’s a lot of confusion about that and which. They’re often used interchangeably, but they’re not interchangeable.

Historically, these two words may have carried the same meaning, and some English dialects may allow for that and which to be swapped without affecting the meaning of a sentence.

But in American English, there’s a very distinct difference between the two, and by the time you’re done reading this post, you’ll have it down and will fully understand the difference between that and which.

That and Which

As with most grammar rules, there are exceptions and exemptions from the standard ways that and which should be used. To gain understanding of confusing word pairs, it’s always best to start with the basics. Even advanced writers are better off keeping things simple because writing will be clearer and more accessible. As we look at how to properly use that and which, we’ll focus on basic, standard usage.

That and which can be categorized into several different parts of speech. Both words can function as adjectives and pronouns. Additionally, that can serve as a conjunction and as an adverb. Today, we’re looking at how that and which should be used when they are working as relative pronouns.

Relative Pronouns

From Wikipedia: “A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause within a larger sentence. It is called a relative pronoun because it relates to the word that it modifies.”

Like adjectives and adverbs, relative pronouns modify other words. Adjectives modify nouns:

• I have a car.
• I have a red car.

Adverbs modify verbs:

• I am walking.
• I am walking quickly.

The main difference between adjectives and adverbs is that adjectives usually describe things while adverbs describe actions. Relative pronouns also modify words, but they often do so as clauses rather than as single, descriptive words. In the examples below, the clauses are italicized.

• Bring me the bucket.
• Bring me the bucket that has apples in it.
• The bucket, which has apples in it, is blue.

The difference between the words that and which, and how they are used as relative pronouns, depends on whether the clause they belong to is restrictive or nonrestrictive.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Restrictive Clauses Are Necessary

A restrictive clause is necessary to the meaning of a sentence. For example:

• The bucket that has apples in it is the one I want.

If you removed the clause “that has apples in it,” the meaning of the sentence would be lost. The clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence and is therefore a restrictive clause. Because it’s a restrictive clause, it should take the relative pronoun that.

Nonrestrictive Clauses are Unnecessary

• The bucket, which is blue, has apples in it.
• There are apples in the bucket, which is blue.

If you removed the clause “which is blue,” from either of the sentences above, the meaning of the sentences would not be lost. We’d still know that the bucket has apples in it. Note that in the second example, the nonrestrictive clause adds information about something that has already been identified. Because the clause is unnecessary to the meaning of the sentence, we know it’s a nonrestrictive clause, and therefore should take the relative pronoun which.

• Use that before a restrictive clause.
• Use which before a nonrestrictive clause.